I would add, that Jewish identity is also a difference on religious sense versus nationality. Being Jew is also issue of someone cultural identity but not necessary correlate with strict religious sense. My in-laws are Orthodox Jews, but many are totally secular in the term of religion, while other maintain their culture, food, and heritage. They are proud Americans, who served this country for century. Also Jews look so differently, because their statehood was derived from literature instead specific nation-state. Their ancestry was deeply influenced by area they lived in the late antiquity. In Prague there were two different Jewish communities, one that came from the West and Spain and other that came from Byzantine empire. They left different culture behind until it was either assimilated or destroyed through the horrors of the 20th century.
I have to disagree with this statement:
This "Golden Age" of enlightenment opened us to advances in science, mathematics, even introducing logic into ancient religions. We are different in many of these areas because Westerners cut themselves off from us for a while and are still playing catch up
European dark age was due collapse of population sometimes up to 90% of the density it had in the peak of Roman Empire. For example Italian population decreased from 11 millions during the Imperial era to 2 millions by 550. However, by 1250 West Europe was the wealthiest region in the world until WWII, ahead with its technology over China, Arab world, and India. Europeans had already universities that by 1400 produced thousands of graduates in various topics every year. It was the technology that enabled Europeans to control every corner of this world. Through its history, Western Europe was NEVER conquered by non-European nation. Attila was defeated at the Chalon, Mongols depleted their force in Hungary when 90% of its armed forced died by 1242. During the Age of Exploitation, Europeans were disappointed what they find in Orient. Depopulated cites, backward regions, capital cities in ruins or built from woods. A lot had to do with Mongol conquest that threw Far East, Middle East, and Central Asia 500 years back. This region had not yet recovered from the wars of the great Khans. China, Korea are the exception, but it was not until modern era, when this happened.